Nanobiotechnology Innovations Enhancing Targeted Drug Delivery and Precision Therapeutics for Human Diseases Globally: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Nanobiotechnology integrates nanoscience, molecular biology, pharmacology, materials science, biotechnology, and medicine to improve the delivery, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases. Conventional drug delivery systems may be limited by poor aqueous solubility, premature degradation, rapid clearance, nonspecific biodistribution, inadequate tissue penetration, and dose-limiting toxicity. Nanomedicine provides a broad range of platforms, including liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, nanogels, inorganic nanoparticles, protein-based systems, extracellular-vesicle-inspired systems, and hybrid nanocarriers, that can modify pharmacokinetics, protect therapeutic cargo, improve cellular uptake, and enable controlled or stimuli-responsive release. Recent advances have incorporated targeting ligands, biomimetic membranes, nucleic-acid delivery, molecular imaging, and theranostic functions into nanomedicine platforms. Targeted nanomedicine has been extensively investigated in oncology and is increasingly being explored for neurological, cardiovascular, metabolic, infectious, inflammatory, and genetic diseases. Brain-targeted delivery remains particularly challenging because the blood–brain barrier restricts the entry of many therapeutic agents. Precision nanomedicine seeks to tailor nanocarrier physicochemical properties, targeting strategies, and drug release characteristics according to disease biomarkers, tissue microenvironments, receptor expression, and patient-specific therapeutic requirements. This review was developed as a structured narrative review of peer-reviewed literature published in English from January 2014 to December 2025. Literature was identified through PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar and synthesized thematically across nanocarrier design, targeting strategies, disease-specific applications, precision nanomedicine, theranostics, safety, manufacturing, regulation, and clinical translation. Major translational barriers include biological heterogeneity, protein-corona formation, nanoparticle clearance, manufacturing complexity and reproducibility, immunogenicity, long-term toxicity, regulatory requirements, and differences between preclinical models and human biology. Overall, advances in nanobiotechnology are expanding the potential for more precise and controlled therapeutic delivery, although robust clinical validation, scalable manufacturing, regulatory harmonization, and equitable global access remain essential for broader clinical implementation.